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Constructivist Learning and Teaching
Dr. Vickie Harry |
Research Overview
The constructivist approach to learning and teaching in science
engages learners and teachers in the active construction of
knowledge. Learners make sense of new ideas and concepts in terms of
their existing ideas as they apply understanding to novel situations
(a learner-centered approach). In contrast, passive learning that is
received from an outside source limits the ability of the learner to
comprehend the fundamental concepts (a teacher-centered approach).
Brooks and Brooks (1993) present a basic proposition about
initiating changes toward more constructivist, learner-centered
classrooms. Barbara Talbert Jackson, in her foreword to the Brooks
and Brooks book, explains the proposition in this manner “... in
order for learning to take place in schools, teachers must become
constructivist, that is, in the classroom, they must provide a
learning environment where students search for meaning, appreciate
uncertainty, and inquire responsibly” (Brooks & Brooks, 1993, p. v).
Constructivism stands in contrast to typical classrooms where
students mimic information presented by the teacher. In
constructivism, teachers look for what learners can generate,
demonstrate, and exhibit.
Ideas about the construction of knowledge have existed since the
pre-Socratic time of Parmenides. Socrates’ dialectic was a means for
constructing knowledge for the learners of his time. Great thinkers
since Socrates including Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, Chomsky, Bruner,
and Fosnot continued to build on the foundational work about the
relationships among meaningful learning experiences, cognitive
development, and the construction of knowledge and understanding.
Fosnot (1989) cites four principles of constructivism: 1) knowledge
consists of past constructions, 2) constructions come about through
assimilation and accommodation, 3) learning is an organic process of
invention, rather than a mechanical process of accumulation, 4)
meaningful learning occurs through reflection and resolution of
cognitive conflict and thus serves to negate earlier incomplete
levels of understanding. The Piagetian terms of assimilation and
accommodation are comprised in the second principle. The terms
suggest fitting new information into existing schema or
altering/creating schema in response to new information to achieve
equilibrium. Fosnot’s fourth principle suggests that meaningful
learning occurs after cognitive dissonance or disequilibrium.
Inquiry is a means for resolving disequilibrium. As learners design
investigations to solve problems, analyze discrepant events, or
interpret anomalies, they explore periods of disequilibrium as they
develop knowledge and understanding about evidence and explanations.
Brooks and Brooks (1993) specify some guiding principles of
constructivism: 1) posing problems of emerging relevance to
students, 2) structuring learning around primary concepts, 3)
seeking and valuing students’ points of view, adapting curriculum to
address students’ suppositions, 4) assessing student learning in the
context of teaching. Constructivist classrooms implementing the
guiding principles rely heavily on primary sources of data and
manipulative materials; view students as thinkers with emerging
theories about the world; seek students’ points of view in order to
understand students’ present conceptions; and involve students in
group work. “Constructivist teachers encourage student inquiry by
asking thoughtful, open-ended questions and encouraging students to
ask questions of each other” (Brooks & Brooks, 1993, p. 110).
Through the implementation of the National Science Education
Standards (1996), a changing conception about learning and teaching
in science can emerge in classrooms where Science as Inquiry is the
process for achieving scientific literacy. Through careful support
from skilled teachers, communities of learners construct a vision of
the optimal class environment for science learning. Constructivist
teachers who model wonder, curiosity, and respect toward nature
reinforce positive attitudes toward science as they engage in their
own learning. Teachers of science make investigations meaningful for
students through active involvement, cognitive and manipulative
skills, and sources for topics highlighted by actual science and
technology-related problems.
Exposure to constructivist frameworks and approaches such as
manipulative mathematics, hands-on science, cooperative learning,
and interactive/flexible grouping designs helps teachers understand
and practice constructivist methodologies. The process of inquiring
about the practice of constructivist teaching poses questions and
investigates classroom phenomena about the acquisition of scientific
understanding. As teachers begin to build teams of learners in the
science classroom, the goals for the science team that emerge are:
to investigate, question, predict, analyze, create, and think.
Learners in schools construct knowledge about ideas and concepts in
science while doing the work of scientists. Who knows what they may
discover!
Changing traditional science classrooms into constructivist learning
environments where the National Science Education Standards are
practiced can be a reality for all classrooms. The first step toward
the goal of constructivist learning and teaching challenges teachers
and administrators to address Professional Development Standard A.
(Professional development for teachers of science requires learning
essential science content through the perspectives and methods of
inquiry.) Staff development programs engaging teachers as active
learners of science in which the discovery approach to science is
modeled through the learning cycle, the generative learning model of
teaching, or other constructivist approaches to the teaching and
learning of science is a good beginning. |
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Classroom Examples |
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Preliminary and/or Engage
Phases of Learning |
In constructivist learning and teaching, young children are actively
engaged in constructing knowledge about a topic or theme chosen by
the teacher or generated by a class discussion about what student
would like to study. For example, if the children and/or the teacher
select the earth science theme of rocks to study, the first task for
the teacher is to find out what children already know about the
topic to identify their existing ideas. There are many ways for a
teacher to access children’s prior knowledge about rocks. One
example is to ask the children to bring their favorite rocks to
school on the first day of the unit. (It may be a good idea to limit
the size of the rock to the size of the fist.) Individually or in
small groups, the children share stories about the rocks that they
brought to school. This activity provides the teacher with a
tremendous amount of information about what the children already
know about rocks.
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Focus and/or Explore Phases of Learning |
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Exploration and discovery are two important elements
of constructivism. In a unit about rocks, during the focus or
explore phase of learning and teaching, the teacher provides
motivating experiences and discrepant events to engage learners;
while at the same time, modeling certain attitudes such as wonder,
curiosity, and respect toward nature. An example of a motivating
experience for children studying rocks is reading the book,
Everybody Needs a Rock, by Byrd Baylor (ISBN 0-689-71051-8). This
book describes rules about a perfect rock and encourages children to
think about how the rules apply to their rocks. An example of a
discrepant event during the study of rocks is to ask children if
rocks sink or float. After collecting data about their predictions,
provide children with pieces of pumice and provide the materials for
them to test their predictions. During this phase of learning, the
children become familiar with rocks as they make discoveries about
rocks think about the ideas presented by the teacher, and listen to
the views shared by the other children in the class.
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Challenge, Explain, and/or Elaborate Phases of Learning |
After engaging children in experiences to accomplish the objectives
of the unit or lesson, the teacher provides experiences to confirm
the scientist’s view of properties of rocks. Children compare their
discoveries about properties of rocks to the tests scientists do to
classify and sort rocks. Books and Internet resources that identify
and describe the properties of rocks can help provide additional
information for children’s questions. One example of an information
book about rocks is, Usborne Spotter's Guides Rocks and Minerals, by
Alan Wooley (ISBN # 0-590-73870). Children compare their
discoveries about rocks to the scientist’s view of rocks and
construct knowledge about their explorations and discoveries. They
also test the validity of the views of other children in the class
by seeking evidence about the ideas.
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Application and/or Evaluation Phase of Learning |
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In constructivism, the final phase of learning happens when the
newly constructed knowledge is applied to a new problem or
situation. After constructing knowledge about the experiences with
rocks during the focus and challenge phases of learning, the
children apply content knowledge and science process skills to novel
situations and evaluate the outcome of the solutions. One example of
a new problem is asking the children to use sequencing to sort
rocks. Using seriation, children apply what they learned about the
properties of rocks to arrange them from lightest to heaviest,
smallest to largest, or lightest to darkest (color). An additional
assessment of knowledge and skills of identifying properties of
rocks is to ask children to create the sequence and then ask another
children to identify the attribute(s) used to seriate the rocks. |
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Another Example of Constructivist Teaching - Discovering Density |
| PHASE |
TEACHER ACTIVITY |
LEARNER ACTIVITY |
| Preliminary |
Ascertains students’
views about density. This can be accomplished via concept
interviews, concept maps, small group discussions, whole class
discussions, journals entries, surveys, etc. |
Students participate
in activities designed by the teacher to ascertain what students
know about density. |
| Focus |
Establishes a context
for learning. The teacher provides students with opportunities
to manipulate materials; enabling them to express and clarify
ideas about which objects sink or float. The teacher assembles a
kit of materials for students to manipulate and test. |
Students explore the
objects in the kits, make predictions about which objects will
sink or float, develop personal theories about why things sink
or float, and test personal theories about sinking and floating.
Students ask questions to clarify their views of the concept and
present their views to a group or the class. |
| Challenge |
Facilitate the
exchange of views and present the scientist’s view of density.
Provide additional float and sink experiences for students whose
personal theories conflicts with the scientist’s view. For
example, engage students in the activity, Floating Fruit (Spring
into Math & Science, (1984). Fresno, CA: Project AIMS to test
their theories. |
Students discuss
differing views presented by classmates, discover the merits and
defects in the theories, and come to a consensus about a theory
for floating and sinking. Compare the scientist’s view of
density to the class theory. Come to agreement on the validity
of the scientist’s view after additional experiences (Floating
Fruit). |
| Application |
Present a new density
problem to students requiring the use of the accepted view of
why object sink or float. For example, Barge Building
(Elementary Science Olympiad Coaches Manual and Rules, (1989).
Rochester, MI: Science Olympiad, Inc.) asks students to apply
their knowledge about density to a new problem. |
Student solve a
practical problem (Barge Building) using the concept of density.
Student share solutions with classmates and discuss the merits
and difficulties of various solutions. |
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References |
Brooks, J. G. & Brooks, B. G. (1993). The case for constructivist
classrooms. Alexandria, VI: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
Fosnot, C.T. (1989). Enquiring teachers, enquiring learners: A
constructivist approach for teaching. New York: Teachers College
Press.
National Research Council. (1996). National Science Education
Standards. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press. |
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Internet Links |
Constructivism in Science Education
On
this website, you will find links to other sites on Constructivists
(such as Piaget and Vygotsky) and Constructivism essays/articles.
Miami Museum of Science - The pH Factor - Constructivism and the Five E's
This site deals with
Constructivism and the 5 E’s: Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate,
and Evaluate. Also provided are links to the rationale behind each of
the 5 E’s.
Essays on Constructivism and Education
A list of links to
essays on Constructivism and Education.
A
Constructivist View of Science Education
This
site provides a constructivist view of education.
Constructivist Teaching in Primary Science
This
website gives insight into constructivist teaching in primary science. |
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